1. Introduction
This article provides a general overview of ethnic nationalities, languages, scripts, linguistic relationships, language ecology, and other aspects of Vietnam. It also presents a detailed discussion of research conducted in Vietnam regarding the languages of "ethnic minorities."
2. Ethnic Nationalities and Languages in Vietnam
According to the 2009 census, Vietnam has 54 ethnic nationalities with a total population of 85,846,997 people. These include: Kinh, Tày, Thái, Mường, Khmer, Hmông, Nùng, Hoa, Dao, Gia Rai, Ê Đê, Ba Na, Sán Chay, Chăm, Cơ Ho, Xơ Đăng, Sán Dìu, Hrê, Ra Glai, Mnông, Xtiêng, Thổ, Bru - Vân Kiều, Khơ Mú, Cơ Tu, Giáy, Ta Ôi, Mạ, Gié - Triêng, Co, Chơ Ro, Xinh Mun, Hà Nhì, Chu Ru, Lào, Kháng, La Chí, Phù Lá, La Hủ, La Ha, Pà Thẻn, Lự, Ngái, Chứt, Lô Lô, Mảng, Cơ Lao, Bố Y, Cống, Si La, Pu Péo, Rơ Măm, Brâu, and Ơ Đu.
Among these 54 ethnic nationalities, the Kinh people comprise 73,594,427 individuals, accounting for 85.6% of the total population, making them the "majority ethnic group." The remaining 53 ethnic nationalities have a total population of 12,252,570 people, constituting 14.4% of the total population, and are classified as "ethnic minorities."
In Vietnam, language is a crucial criterion for distinguishing ethnic nationalities. According to common understanding, each of the 54 ethnic nationalities corresponds to a specific language. However, the actual number of languages spoken in Vietnam exceeds 54, as some ethnic peoples have subgroups that speak different languages. In total, Vietnam is home to over 90 languages.
3. Genetic Relationships and Typological Classification of Languages in Vietnam
3.1. Genetic Relationships
According to widely accepted views, the ethnic groups in Vietnam speak languages belonging to five major language families:
3.2. Typological Classification of Languages in Vietnam
All languages spoken in Vietnam belong to the same typological category: the isolating language type.
Isolating languages (also referred to as "non-inflectional languages") have several distinctive characteristics that make them easily recognizable:
The isolating languages in Vietnam can be divided into three subcategories:
Typological changes such as increased mono-syllabication and the development of tonal systems are common evolutionary trends among Vietnamese languages.
Additionally, Vietnam exhibits various sociolinguistic relationships, including:
(i) The relationship between Vietnamese—the national language—and minority languages.
(ii) The relationships between different ethnic minority languages.
(iii) The relationships between different dialects within the same ethnic group.
(iv) The relationships between cross-border languages (Vietnamese-Chinese, Vietnamese-Lao, Vietnamese-Khmer, etc.).
These relationships result from historical, national, and regional factors, as well as socio-economic, political, and cultural influences. However, the primary causes are historical wars, migration and immigration, territorial divisions and mergers, interspersed settlement patterns, ethnic fragmentation, and convergence or dispersion of ethnic nationalities.
4. Writing Systems of Ethnic Nationalities in Vietnam
Among the ethnic groups in Vietnam, many communities have developed their own writing systems. Some ethnic nationalities possess multiple scripts, while others have yet to develop one. Certain scripts have a history spanning nearly a thousand years, whereas others have been created more recently, based on the Latin alphabet. These scripts may be logographic, phonographic, or a combination of both.
In general, Vietnam has two main types of writing systems:
(1) Traditional writing systems: These scripts have been in use for centuries, including Classical Chinese (Chữ Hán), Vietnamese Nôm script (Chữ Nôm), Traditional Cham script, Khmer script, Tày Nôm, Nùng Nôm, Ngạn Nôm, Dao Nôm, Sán Chí Nôm, Sán Dìu Nôm, Lự script, and Old Thái script. These writing systems belong to ethnic groups such as the Khmer, Thái, Cham, Tày, Nùng, and Dao. The Old Thái, Traditional Cham, and Khmer scripts are derived from Sanskrit-based writing systems. Meanwhile, the traditional scripts of the Tày, Nùng, Cao Lan, Ngạn, and Dao (as well as the Nôm script of the Kinh people) belong to the category of "square scripts," originating from Classical Chinese and carrying a tradition of several centuries.
(2) "New" writing systems (Latin-based scripts): These are scripts developed using the Latin alphabet, including Quốc Ngữ (the modern Vietnamese script), as well as the scripts for the Ba Na, Gia Rai, Ê Đê, Cơ Ho, Pa Cô-Ta Ôi, Gié-Triêng, Bru-Vân Kiều, Cơ Tu, Ra Glai, Tày–Nùng, Mường, Thái, and others. The Latin-based scripts for Vietnam’s ethnic minorities were created during different historical periods. Some, like those for Ba Na, Gia Rai, Ê Đê, and Cơ Ho, were developed before 1945, while most were introduced after 1960.
5. Studies on the Languages (Speech and Writing) of Ethnic Nationalities in Vietnam
Since Vietnamese is the national language with the largest number of speakers, it has been extensively studied in diverse ways. The following section focuses only on research related to the languages of ethnic minorities.)
5.1. Before 1954
Alongside research on the Vietnamese language, scholars from the French School of the Far East (École française d'Extrême-Orient, EFEO) conducted studies on several ethnic minority languages in Vietnam.
The EFEO is a French research center specializing in Oriental studies, with a primary focus on fieldwork. Throughout its more than a century of existence, the EFEO has achieved significant accomplishments in the field of Asian studies. Its research journal, Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient (BEFEO), has become well-known among scholars of archaeology and Asian history.
The EFEO’s first headquarters was established in Saigon, Cochinchina, in 1900. In 1902, its main office was moved to Hanoi, where it undertook archaeological excavations, collected manuscripts, preserved historical structures, and conducted research on ethnology, linguistics, and the history of Asian countries. The early years of the EFEO were marked by contributions from renowned scholars and leading figures in Oriental studies, including Paul Pelliot, Henri Maspero, and Paul Demiéville in linguistics; Louis Finot and George Cœdès in the epigraphy of Indochina; Henri Parmentier in archaeology; and Paul Mus in the study of religious history.
Currently, the EFEO archives still contain research materials on the Vietnamese, Cham, Ba Na, Mnông, Cơ Ho, and Gia Rai languages, as well as the writing systems of these ethnic nationalities.
Some writing systems were developed before 1945, such as those of the Ê Đê, Gia Rai, and Ba Na people. These scripts were created by missionaries and were used for religious propagation, becoming widely known among ethnic minorities in the Central Highlands. Although they had been in use since the 1920s, it was not until 1935 that the Governor-General of Indochina issued a decree officially recognizing the Ê Đê script and allowing its use in daily life. This script underwent certain modifications in 1937.
Later, particularly in the late 1980s, some individuals advocated for further simplifications in the script’s alphabet system to make it more suitable for printing and publishing Ê Đê-language books and materials.
Several other scripts and transcription methods from the French colonial period—such as those for Hmông, Mnông, Chăm, Cơ Ho, Ra Glai, and even the early versions of the Vietnamese quốc ngữ script—are no longer in use today. However, they have served as valuable references for the development of new writing systems in later years.
5.2. From 1954 to 1975
This was a period when Vietnam was divided into two regions: North and South.
In the North, the task of researching the languages of ethnic minorities was mainly assigned to the Institute of Linguistics (under the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences). Additionally, some universities and the Institute of Educational Sciences also conducted research on various aspects of ethnic minority languages. The Tày-Nùng script and the Hmông script were developed and officially introduced in 1961, used in bilingual education and for publishing some materials. Several studies were published, covering both fundamental research and practical applications, such as Grammar of the Tày-Nùng Language (1971), Understanding the Languages of Vietnam’s Ethnic Minorities (1972), Mèo-Vietnamese Dictionary (1971), and Tày-Nùng-Vietnamese Dictionary (1974).
The Institute of Linguistics (established in 1968, English name: Institute of Linguistics) had the function of researching fundamental theoretical and applied linguistic issues related to the Vietnamese language, ethnic minority languages, and foreign languages in Vietnam. It provided scientific arguments for language policy planning and offered consultation and postgraduate training in linguistics.
In the South, from 1957 onwards, there were research activities focused on the languages of ethnic minorities, the creation of writing systems, bilingual education, and religious missions.
The SIL International (Summer Institute of Linguistics), headquartered in Dallas, Texas, USA, aimed primarily at researching and documenting languages—especially lesser-known ones—to expand linguistic knowledge, promote literacy, translate the Christian Bible into local languages, and support minority language development. In 1957, this organization began operations in South Vietnam, studying ethnic minority languages, developing writing systems, translating the Bible for Protestant missionary work, and compiling bilingual teaching materials (such as textbooks and comparative vocabularies). Bilingual education programs were implemented, leading to the publication of numerous religious texts and schoolbooks in minority languages.
As a result, from the arrival of David Thomas, the first SIL representative in Vietnam, until the end of a 17-year period, numerous writing systems were developed, and a vast number of bilingual educational materials were prepared. Teaching materials were developed for languages such as Ba Na, Bru-Vân Kiều, Chu Ru, Cơ Ho, Ê Đê, Mnông, Nùng, Ra Glai, Rơ Ngao, Xơ Đăng, Xtiêng, Thái, Cơ Tu, Hroi, and Mường. From 1967, SIL provided these materials for primary school students, starting with reading and writing in their mother tongue before gradually integrating Vietnamese (bilingual education). The goal was to transition reading skills from the native language to Vietnamese. Between 1967 and 1975, around 800 to 1,000 teachers (mostly native speakers) were trained to teach using these materials.
A range of linguistic tools (dictionaries and vocabularies) was compiled based on these writing systems. Some of these systems were later modified (e.g., Gia Rai, Ba Na, Ê Đê). Examples of such works include: Học tiếng Ê Đê (Learning Ê Đê, Nguyễn Hoàng Chừng, 1961), Thổ Dictionary, Thổ - Vietnamese - English (A. C. Day, 1962), Ê Đê - French and French - Ê Đê Dictionary (R.P. Louison Benjamin, 1964), Sedang Vocabulary (Kenneth D. Smith, 1967), Mnong Rơlơm Dictionary (Henry Blood, 1976), Klei hriăm boh blu Ê Đê - Ê Đê Vocabulary (Y Cang Niê Siêng, 1979), Chù chìh dò tơtayh Jeh - Jeh Vocabulary (Patrick D. Cohen, 1979), A Rhade - English Dictionary with English - Rhade Finderlist (James A. Tharp & Y Bhăm, 1980), Katu Dictionary: Katu - Vietnamese - English (N.A. Costello, 1991)
These works were supplemented by grammar guides and articles describing the linguistic structures of these languages, often using the scripts of the respective ethnic nationalities.
Before 1975, the work of developing and promoting writing systems was not limited to SIL; it was also undertaken by the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam. The Front’s officers developed scripts for Cơ Tu, Xơ Đăng, Bru-Vân Kiều, Pa Cô, Hrê, Co, Mnông, Xtiêng, and improved the scripts for Ba Na, Ê Đê, and Gia Rai. They also promoted and implemented the use of these scripts among ethnic minority communities.
5.3. The Period from 1975 to the Present
This is the period of a unified Vietnam.
In 1981, the Latin-based Thai script was developed. In addition to creating new scripts, responsible institutions also improved several existing scripts, such as the Koho script (in Lâm Đồng), the Bru - Vân Kiều, Pa Cô - Ta Ôi scripts (in Quảng Bình, Quảng Trị, Thừa Thiên - Huế), the Raglai script (in Ninh Thuận), the Cotu script (in Quảng Nam), the Chăm Hroi script, the Ba Na Kriêm script, the Hrê script (in Bình Định), the Mnông script (in Đắk Nông, Đắk Lắk), and the Ca Dong (Xơ Đăng) script in Quảng Nam, among others.
Numerous publications have been released, including Ngữ pháp tiếng Cơ ho (Grammar of the Koho language, 1985), Tiếng Pu Péo (1992), Tiếng Rục (1993), Những vấn đề chính sách ngôn ngữ ở Việt Nam (Issues in Language Policy in Vietnam, 1993), Ngữ âm tiếng Êđê (Ede Phonetics, 1996), Tiếng Ka tu: Cấu tạo từ (Katu Language: Word Formation, 1995), Tiếng Mnông - ngữ pháp ứng dụng (Mnong Language - Applied Grammar, 1996), Tiếng Ka tu (Katu Language, 1998), Tiếng Bru - Vân Kiều (Bru - Vân Kiều Language, 1998), Tiếng Hà Nhì (Hà Nhì Language, 2001), Cảnh huống và chính sách ngôn ngữ ở Việt Nam (Language Situation and Policy in Vietnam, 2002), Ngữ âm tiếng Cơ ho (Koho Phonetics, 2004), Tiếng Mảng (Mang Language, 2008), Ngữ pháp tiếng Cơ tu (Grammar of the Cotu Language, 2011), Ngữ pháp tiếng Êđê (Grammar of the Ede Language, 2011), Ngữ pháp tiếng Cor (Grammar of the Cor Language, 2014), Ngôn ngữ các dân tộc ở Việt Nam (Languages of Ethnic Groups in Vietnam, 2017), and Ngữ pháp tiếng Hmông (Grammar of the Hmong Language, 2019), among others.
Multilingual bilingual dictionaries have also been compiled, such as Từ điển Việt - Gia Rai (Vietnamese - Jarai Dictionary, 1977), Từ điển Việt - Cơ ho (Vietnamese - Koho Dictionary, 1983), Từ điển Việt - Tày - Nùng (Vietnamese - Tay - Nung Dictionary, 1984), Từ điển Thái - Việt (Thai - Vietnamese Dictionary, 1990), Từ điển Việt - Êđê (Vietnamese - Ede Dictionary, 1993), Từ điển Việt - Mông (Việt - Hmôngz) (Vietnamese - Hmong Dictionary, 1996), Từ vựng các phương ngữ Êđê (Ede Dialect Vocabulary, 1998), Từ điển Cơ tu - Việt, Việt - Cơ tu (Cotu - Vietnamese, Vietnamese - Cotu Dictionary, 2007), Từ điển Êđê - Việt (Ede - Vietnamese Dictionary, 2015), and Từ điển Việt – Cor, Cor – Việt (Vietnamese - Cor, Cor - Vietnamese Dictionary, 2024).
Many textbooks for learning and teaching ethnic minority languages have been published, such as Sách học tiếng Pakôh - Taôih (Pakoh - Taoi Language Textbook, 1986), Hdruôm hră hriăm klei Êđê (1988), Sách học tiếng Bru - Vân Kiều (Bru - Vân Kiều Language Textbook, 1986), Sách học tiếng Êđê (Ede Language Textbook, 1988), Hdruôm hră hriăm klei Êđê (2004), Pơrap Kơtu (Cotu Language, 2006), Bôq chù Hrê Bình Định (Hrê Script in Bình Định, 2008), and Xroi Kool - Tiếng Cor (Cor Language, 2014).
Following Decision 53 - CP of the Council of Ministers of Vietnam (February 22, 1980) on policies regarding ethnic minority scripts, ethnic minority intellectuals, and Vietnamese linguists worked to refine the scripts for Koho, Co, Hrê, Ba Na, Raglai, Mnông, Xơ Đăng, Cotu, Ca Dong, etc. These scripts were then used to compile textbooks, bilingual dictionaries, grammar books, and instructional materials. Many works of folklore, including customary laws, epics, and folktales, were collected, translated, and published in these scripts.
Numerous literary works and informational books in bilingual Vietnamese - ethnic minority formats have been widely disseminated across the country, including Sóng chụ son sao (Thai ethnic group), Tiếng hát làm dâu (Hmong people), Đăm San, Xinh Nhã (Ede people), Người Mông nhớ Bác Hồ, Chỉ vì quá yêu (Hmong people), Luật tục dân tộc Gia Rai (Jarai Customary Law), Luật tục dân tộc Mnông (Mnong Customary Law), and Văn vĩ quan làng (Tay people). In recent years, the epics of ethnic nationalities in the Trường Sơn and Central Highlands regions, such as the Xtriêng, Raglai, Mnông, Jarai, Ede, and Ba Na epics, have been collected and published bilingually.
In education, by 2025, eight ethnic minority languages—Thai, Hmong, Ba Na, Jarai, Xơ Đăng, Chăm, Khmer, Hoa, and Ede—have been incorporated into primary and ethnic boarding school curricula. Many textbooks in ethnic minority languages or bilingual ethnic minority - Vietnamese formats have been developed.
In mass media, since 1956, the Voice of Vietnam (VOV) has broadcast in ethnic minority languages such as Jarai, Ba Na, Ede, Hrê, Mnông, and Châu Mạ, followed by Thai, Hmong, Mường, and others. By 2025, nearly 30 ethnic minority languages have been broadcast on VOV4 radio and VTV5 television. Provinces with large ethnic minority populations also have radio and television programs in ethnic minority languages, including Khmer, Chăm, Ede, Jarai, Ba Na, Cotu, Koho, Xơ Đăng, Xtriêng, Thai, Mường, Dao, Hmong, Mnông, Hrê, Châu Ro, Bru-Vân Kiều, Ta Ôi, and Raglai.
Regarding research cooperation, many foreign scholars from Russia, the United States, China, France, and other countries have conducted research in Vietnam.
Since the 1990s, within the framework of Vietnam - Soviet (later Vietnam - Russia) cooperation, the Vietnam - Soviet (later Vietnam - Russia) field survey program on ethnic minority languages in Vietnam has investigated many languages, providing data for the compilation of field research materials, including Tiếng La Ha (Laha Language, 1986), Tiếng Mường (Muong Language, 1987), Tiếng Kxinhmul (Kxinhmul Language, 1990), Tiếng Pu Péo (Pu Péo Language, 1992), Tiếng Rục (Rục Language, 1993), and Tiếng Cơ Lao (Cơ Lao Language, 2011).
6. Conclusion
Vietnam is a multi-ethnic and multilingual country.
Many ethnic minority languages in Vietnam have been studied. The directions for future research include:
However, many languages and aspects of languages in Vietnam have not been fully researched. The list of languages spoken in Vietnam today is still provisional. There is no effective or feasible method yet for language education in ethnic minority areas. An effective solution to the deterioration of languages with lower status and fewer speakers in the current conditions of Vietnam has not been found. Some languages are already disappearing, and there are languages that have become dead languages.
On this note, I would like to share the comment of the author René Gillouin (from his book From Alsace to Flanders: The Mysticism of Linguistics - quoted by Phạm Quỳnh [8]):
“For a people, losing their mother tongue is like losing their soul.”
Bibliography
Baker, Colin (2008), Những cơ sở của giáo dục song ngữ và vấn đề song ngữ , Nxb. Đại học Quốc gia TP. Hồ Chí Minh, TP. Hồ Chí Minh.
Gregerson, Marilin (1989), “Ngôn ngữ học ứng dụng: Dạy đọc chữ (tài liệu cho các ngôn ngữ thiểu số)”, Tạp chí Ngôn ngữ, số 4.
Hồng, Nguyễn Quang (2018), Ngôn ngữ. Văn tự. Ngữ văn, Nxb Khoa học Xã hội, H.
Lợi, Nguyễn Văn (1995), “Vị thế tiếng Việt ở nước ta hiện nay”, Tạp chí Ngôn ngữ, số 4.
Lợi, Nguyễn Văn (2012), “Công trình tra cứu về ngôn ngữ và vấn đề bảo tồn ngôn ngữ có nguy cơ tiêu vong”, Tạp chí Từ điển học & Bách khoa thư, s. 2(16).
Solncev V.M... [1982], "Về ý nghĩa của việc nghiên cứu các ngôn ngữ phương đông đối với sự phát triển của ngôn ngữ học đại cương", Ngôn ngữ số 4.
Tuệ, Hoàng... (1984), Ngôn ngữ các dân tộc thiểu số Việt Nam và chính sách ngôn ngữ, Nxb. Khoa học xã hội, H.
Quỳnh, Phạm (2007), Tiểu luận (viết bằng tiếng Pháp trong thời gian 1922 – 1932), Nxb. Tri thức, H.
Thông, Tạ Văn (1993), “Mối quan hệ giữa chữ và tiếng các dân tộc thiểu số với chữ và tiếng Việt”, Trong: Những vấn đề chính sách ngôn ngữ ở Việt Nam, Nxb. Khoa học Xã hội, H.
Thông, Tạ Văn – Tùng, Tạ Quang (2017), Ngôn ngữ các dân tộc ở Việt Nam, Nxb. Đại học Thái Nguyên.
Tổ chức Giáo dục, Khoa học và Văn hóa của Liên Hợp Quốc UNESCO Băng Cốc (2007), Tài liệu hướng dẫn Phát triển Chương trình Xóa mù chữ và Giáo dục cho người lớn tại cộng đồng ngôn ngữ thiểu số, NXB Giao thông Vận tải, H.