On May 12, the Vietnam Studies Center held the final seminar of the Spring semester in its ongoing series “The World Beyond the Book.” The guest speaker was Dr. Hà Mạnh Quân, a scholar of English Literature at the University of Montana (USA), as well as a translator and editor of several English-language anthologies of Vietnamese literature.

The talk took place as Vietnam looks ahead to two major anniversaries: the 80th anniversary of the August Revolution (1945–2025) and the 50th anniversary of national reunification (1975–2025). With the theme “Literature and Memory in Vietnam’s Revolutionary Periods,” Dr. Hà Mạnh Quân reflected on his experience translating two works: Light Out and Modern Vietnamese Stories, 1930–1954 and the novel No Man River (Bến không chồng) by author Dương Hướng. Both translations contribute to reconstructing significant cultural and political memories of Vietnam through the lens of literature.

Speaking about Light Out and Modern Vietnamese Stories, 1930–1954, Dr. Hà emphasized the diversity of voices and lived experiences captured in the collection. It opens a window into the layered and multifaceted lives of people during this period—where memory belongs not only to the victors, but also to mothers, wives, and marginalized individuals often forgotten in the grand narrative of revolution.

From a translation perspective, Dr. Hà highlighted the challenge of conveying culturally embedded nuances—from intimate family terms to words rich with meaning or unique to Vietnamese culture. A key priority, he noted, is to avoid excessive footnotes that disrupt the emotional rhythm of the text. Instead, his translations were refined in collaboration with native English-speaking creative writers to preserve the story’s natural flow and vitality.

The discussion also touched on the impact of artificial intelligence on translation. “The more we use it, the more we risk becoming dependent and losing the deeply human creativity of the translator,” he shared. Alongside scholarly analysis, Dr. Hà candidly expressed his own philosophy of translation: sometimes one must be bold enough to “take risks,” for only then can a translation preserve the creative spirit and honest vision of the original work.

The seminar concluded with engaging questions from the audience—not only on translation techniques and AI tools, but also on literature’s role in connecting generations, evoking collective memory, and preserving Vietnamese identity amid the currents of globalization.

China and Vietnam share a landscape of interconnected mountains and rivers. Throughout a long historical evolution, Chinese individuals have migrated to Vietnam and established permanent residence due to various political, economic, and other factors. Both historically and in contemporary times, the Chinese community has made significant contributions to Vietnamese culture, the economy, and other sectors.

Following their migration to Vietnam, the Chinese brought with them advanced scientific and technological knowledge as well as rich cultural traditions, which have exerted a profound and lasting influence on Vietnamese society.

This study focuses on the period from the late 17th century to the mid-19th century, aiming to examine the contributions of the Chinese community in Vietnam to the country’s economic development during this time. It is hoped that this research will enhance understanding of the vital role played by the Chinese in Vietnamese society and contribute to the promotion of friendly relations between China and Vietnam.

1. An Overview of the Chinese Community in Vietnam

According to Vietnam's official classification of ethnic groups, the Chinese community in Vietnam includes not only a considerable number of Han (Hua) people and Ngái people, but also individuals whose ancestors came from China and belong to 21 other ethnic groups. These include the Tay, Nung, Bouyei, Giay, San Diu, Lach, Hmong (Miao), Yao, Pa Then, La Chi, Bo Y, Ha Nhi, Lahu, Lolo, Phu La, Co Lao, Mang, Cong, Si La, Khang, and Kmu, among others. These groups are intricately linked to the Miao-Yao and Zhuang-Dong language families in China and share deep historical and cultural connections with many of the ethnic groups recognized in contemporary China. A significant number of them are Chinese immigrants who relocated to Vietnam after the establishment of the Vietnamese nation.

The migration of overseas Chinese into Vietnam occurred through two primary modes: voluntary migration and forced migration. Voluntary migration was mainly driven by reasons such as livelihood pursuits, commercial activities, failure to return from military campaigns, and religious pilgrimages. Forced migration, on the other hand, was largely caused by factors including political turmoil within China, coercion by foreign powers, and separatist forces in Vietnam, as well as human trafficking. The migration routes were primarily divided into land and maritime pathways. The land routes can be categorized as follows: first, from Thailand along the Mekong River into northwestern Vietnam; second, from Xishuangbanna in Yunnan Province, China into Vietnam, which further subdivides into two branches—one following the Red River to reach Lao Cai and Yen Bai in Vietnam, continuing northwards to the midland areas, then turning towards the areas of Yilu and Shanluo; the other branch followed the Tuo River, eventually settling in places such as Fengtu and Qiongya. Additionally, some migrants crossed the land border directly between China and Vietnam. The migrants from Guangdong and Fujian provinces primarily migrated by sea, crossing the Qiongzhou Strait and traversing the Gulf of Tonkin into Vietnam. Over time, as Vietnamese society underwent continuous transformation, these Chinese immigrants expanded their presence from northern Vietnam into the central and southern regions. Moreover, a certain number of Chinese migrants directly crossed the Gulf of Tonkin to enter central and southern Vietnam.

Chinese immigrants who entered Vietnam maintained intricate and enduring ties with China. Since ancient times, Vietnam has had close relations with China and has been deeply influenced by Chinese Confucian culture. Consequently, culturally, these Chinese immigrants retained a strong sense of cultural identity with China and Confucianism after migrating to Vietnam. Economically, through arduous efforts in Vietnam, the Chinese immigrants achieved significant success and acquired considerable economic strength. Around the time of the Opium Wars, the occupations of overseas Chinese in Vietnam became increasingly diversified, with their presence evident across almost all economic sectors. The majority of overseas Chinese engaged in commerce and industry. Many were owners of small and medium-sized enterprises or small traders involved in rice milling, sugar production, cotton processing, textiles, shipbuilding, brewing, oil pressing, tobacco, food processing, ceramics, medicine, mining, chemical industry, condiments, tea, electrical appliances, machinery, dried fish, steel smelting, and other industries.

It is evident that in areas with concentrated overseas Chinese populations, commerce and industry were relatively well developed. In the early twentieth century, the city of Saigon (then with a total population of 94,000, of whom 49,000 were overseas Chinese, accounting for more than half of the total population) had become the largest commercial center in Vietnam at the time. Moreover, numerous overseas Chinese who began as clerks, laborers, farmers, and fishermen rose to become capitalists, possessing substantial capital and considerable economic power.

By the early twentieth century, the total population of overseas Chinese in Vietnam had reached a significant scale, numbering over one million, ranking sixth among the ethnic groups within the broader Vietnamese national family. The distribution of the Vietnamese Chinese population was widespread, with communities residing across mountainous regions, plains, cities, and rural areas throughout the country. Among the more than one million overseas Chinese, approximately 80% traced their ancestral origins to Guangdong Province, while about 20% came from Fujian, Yunnan, Guangxi, and other provinces. The majority of the Chinese population resided in Ho Chi Minh City (formerly known as Saigon), where the Chinese community numbered 524,499 individuals. Additionally, several provinces in southern Vietnam had Chinese populations exceeding ten thousand, including Hau Giang (102,571), Dong Nai (84,570), Minh Hai (40,144), Song Be (32,512), Cuu Long (20,898), Kien Giang (20,638), and An Giang (18,617). In northern Vietnam, there were approximately 300,000 overseas Chinese, with Quang Ninh Province alone accounting for around 180,000, Haiphong City more than 50,000, and Hanoi 4,015.

During the more than two centuries from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, overseas Chinese in Vietnam experienced two major waves of migration: one occurring during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, and another following the Taiping Rebellion. The number of overseas Chinese migrating to Vietnam has steadily increased. Relying on their intelligence and hard work, they made substantial contributions to the development of Vietnam’s socio-economic landscape. Notably, the period from the late seventeenth century to the mid-nineteenth century stands out as a particularly significant historical era.

2. An Analysis of the Background of Chinese Immigration to Vietnam from the Late 17th to the 19th Century

From the late 17th century to the mid-19th century, both China and Vietnam underwent dynastic transitions but continued to exist as agrarian societies, each cultivating its own flourishing agricultural civilization. On the Chinese side, following the dynastic shift from the Ming to the Qing, the Qing gradually consolidated its rule over the entire country. By the late 17th century, it had suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories and reclaimed Taiwan. In the mid-19th century, Western powers began penetrating China, gradually transforming it into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. Sharp class contradictions emerged, leading to frequent peasant uprisings.

On the Vietnamese side, during the late 17th century, the country was nominally under the rule of the Later Lê dynasty (1428–1788). In reality, however, Vietnam was politically divided between two feudal powers: the Trịnh lords in the North, centered in Thăng Long (present-day Hanoi), and the Nguyễn lords in the South, based in Thuận Hóa. Both the Trịnh and Nguyễn lords nominally pledged allegiance to the Lê emperor. In 1771, the Tây Sơn uprising broke out. This large-scale peasant rebellion successively overthrew the Nguyễn and Trịnh regimes and in 1788 abolished the Later Lê dynasty, establishing the Tây Sơn regime. Nguyễn Huệ ascended the throne under the reign title Quang Trung. In 1802, Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, a descendant of the Nguyễn lords, defeated the Tây Sơn regime and established the Nguyễn dynasty (1802–1945). During the reigns of Gia Long (1802–1820) and Minh Mạng (1820–1841), Vietnam experienced a period of national strength and economic prosperity.

However, in 1858, during the reign of Emperor Tự Đức (1847–1883), French colonial forces arrived in Vietnam. Their growing influence threatened not only Vietnam's independence and national sovereignty but also disrupted the tribute system in East Asia, which had traditionally centered on China. Violent clashes between Eastern and Western forces ensued in Vietnam.

Within this historical context, large-scale Chinese migration to Vietnam occurred, contributing to the formation of a substantial Chinese-Vietnamese population during this period. These migrants were primarily composed of remnants of the Ming loyalists, merchants, miners, members of peasant insurgent forces, and secret society affiliates. Over time, to better survive and integrate into local life, a portion of these migrants gradually assimilated into Vietnamese society, becoming Vietnamese Chinese.

In contrast to the aggressive expansion of Western colonialists, overseas Chinese in Vietnam were more characterized by the Confucian virtues of benevolence, respectfulness, frugality, and humility. They made significant contributions to the social and economic development of Vietnam.

3. The Economic Contributions of Chinese Immigrants in Vietnam from the Late 17th to the Mid-19th Century

Following their migration to Vietnam, Chinese immigrants made significant contributions to the country’s development at various historical stages through their industrious labor, scientific and cultural knowledge, and accumulated practical experience. Among these contributions, their economic impact was particularly prominent. Between the late 17th century and the mid-19th century, Chinese immigrants greatly facilitated the early economic development of Vietnam. They brought with them relatively advanced agricultural techniques from China and possessed rich experience in navigation and trade. Utilizing these skills and knowledge, they worked alongside local inhabitants to develop and build their new homeland. Their contributions were substantial in agriculture, land reclamation, port construction, mining development, and road building.

3.1. In the Field of Agriculture

As early as 1679 (the 18th year of Emperor Kangxi’s reign), Chen Shangchuan (*) led more than 3,000 soldiers and their families aboard over 50 warships to southern Vietnam, seeking refuge with the Nguyễn lords in Huế. Nguyễn Phúc Tần received them warmly, retained their naval structure, conferred official titles upon them, and resettled them in the Đông Phố region to engage in agricultural and developmental work. Chen Shangchuan and his followers reclaimed wasteland and established settlements along the Đại Phố islet of the Đồng Nai River. For over a decade, they carried out development activities deeply infused with the cultural traditions and styles of the late Ming Dynasty.

Chen actively attracted Chinese merchants to establish streets and markets, drawing overseas Chinese to the area and inviting merchants from various countries, thereby transforming Đồng Nai into a major metropolis and commercial center of southern Vietnam. Originally a sparsely populated wilderness, the area saw rapid population growth, reaching over 40,000 households by 1698, the vast majority of which were Chinese. Chen later led development efforts along the Mekong River for another eight years, playing a vital role in the construction and prosperity of the newly reclaimed areas. Thanks to the tireless efforts of overseas Chinese and local residents, the Tiền Giang and Hậu Giang regions became known as the "land of fish and rice" by the early 19th century.

Chinese immigrants also made notable contributions to hydraulic engineering. They participated in the dredging and construction of major waterways, such as the An Thông River, Vĩnh Thanh River, and Rui River. Due to the narrowness of the An Thông River, Emperor Gia Long of the Nguyễn dynasty ordered its expansion in 1819. Chinese immigrants played a crucial role in the successful execution of this project. Since the 17th century, through the relentless efforts of Chinese immigrants and local communities—digging canals, reclaiming land, developing agriculture, and building irrigation systems—the complex and disorganized Mekong Delta was gradually transformed into a fertile and prosperous agricultural region.

In northern Vietnam, especially near the Sino-Vietnamese border, many Chinese immigrants also engaged in agriculture within Vietnamese territory. For instance, in the early 18th century, migrants from Guangxi came to Vietnam to farm, reclaim land, and build irrigation systems. Many of the fields and dams were subsequently named after these Chinese settlers, such as Lu Luc Field, Lao Luu's Sluice, and Tang Nhi Dike in Quảng Hà District, Quảng Ninh Province. After the failure of the Taiping Rebellion, insurgent forces from Guangxi also migrated to Vietnam and took up farming. The Black Flag Army, during its operations in Vietnam, implemented agricultural garrison systems as well. These groups made considerable contributions to the development of local agriculture.

3.2. In the Commercial Sector

After migrating to Vietnam, Chinese immigrants, regardless of their reasons for migration or how they arrived, generally engaged in commercial activities once they had settled. This was largely due to Vietnam’s long-standing feudal structure and its predominantly agrarian economy, which offered limited occupational diversity. For overseas Chinese separated from their homeland, trade represented a relatively convenient means of livelihood.

Vietnam’s favorable geographic location, situated at the crossroads of East–West maritime trade routes, had long made it a hub for international commerce. In the South Seas trade network, Vietnam consistently played a significant role. During the period of conflict between the Trịnh and Nguyễn lords, the Nguyễn regime in Quảng Nam actively promoted foreign trade and vigorously recruited overseas merchants in the southern regions.

In his book The Chinese in Southeast Asia, Victor Purcell wrote: "In the latter half of the 16th century, when European traders arrived in Indochina, the king of the region of Giao Chỉ (modern-day southern Vietnam) allowed the Chinese to select a suitable location within his territory to establish a city and engage in trade. This city was Hội An, located in central-southern Vietnam today. The city was divided into two zones—one for the Chinese and one for the Japanese... After a seven-month-long trading season, the foreign merchants would depart with their goods."

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Chinese merchants gathered in Hội An, and foreign ships came and went regularly, giving rise to a flourishing commercial scene. By the late 17th century, Đại Đường Street in Hội An stretched three to four li (about 1.5–2 km). In 1768, the area of Hội An was home to approximately 6,000 Chinese residents, who made the commercial activities there especially vibrant.

In the early 18th century, the development of the Hà Tiên area by Mạc Cửu and his son transformed this once-barren land into a first-rate seaport. The efforts of Chinese immigrants in cultivating and developing the fertile lands of the Mekong Delta’s Tiền Giang and Hậu Giang regions laid the groundwork for the later commercial prosperity of what is now the Chợ Lớn district of Ho Chi Minh City and other southern border regions of Vietnam.

By the late 18th century, Chợ Lớn had begun to thrive. Many Chinese involved in overseas trade owned their own ships and operated across vast areas. After Nguyễn Phúc Ánh unified Vietnam in 1802, the majority of Chinese merchants gathered in Chợ Lớn to conduct business. By the early 19th century, Chợ Lớn had become Vietnam’s most prosperous city, bustling with merchants from all directions. The city was home to numerous Chinese guild halls, associations, and regional societies, as well as temples dedicated to Guan Yu and Mazu. For this reason, it earned the nickname "Overseas China."

Throughout the long history of migration and the pursuit of livelihood and development, Chinese immigrants in Vietnam primarily concentrated in southern cities where commercial economies were more developed. The rise and prosperity of certain cities were inextricably linked to the efforts and economic activities of the Chinese population. Once these urban centers emerged, they further attracted numerous Chinese merchants as well as Vietnamese traders from other regions.

By the 1820s, one-third of the approximately 315 Chinese commercial vessels that sailed abroad each year were bound for Vietnam. Chinese presence was common across the ports along the Annamese coast—from street vendors and wealthy merchants to shipowners and customs officials, Chinese individuals actively participated in all levels of the port economy. The port cities of Vietnam were bustling with goods, and much of the tea, medicine, and porcelain sold there was brought by Chinese vessels.

From the late 17th century to the mid-19th century, Vietnam experienced a golden age of maritime trade. Hội An, in particular, was a thriving commercial hub filled with an astonishing variety of goods. The Chinese played a key role in managing exports of local Vietnamese specialties such as raw and processed silk, ebony, agarwood, sugar, cinnamon, pepper, and rice. In return, Chinese imports included both coarse and fine porcelain, paper materials, tea, silverware, weaponry, and various Western goods. During the Qing dynasty, a significant number of Chinese merchants were engaged in overseas trade in Vietnam, forming a powerful and influential commercial force. Chinese individuals and their merchant vessels became an indispensable part of Vietnam’s economic development.

In addition to their contributions to maritime trade, Chinese immigrants also played a major role in the development of overland border trade between China and Vietnam. During the Qing dynasty, China’s relatively open trade policy allowed Chinese merchants to conduct cross-border trade. Vietnam, on its part, established border towns within its territory to facilitate commerce with Chinese traders. This form of trade exhibited two distinct features:

（a) Trade Flow: The predominant direction of trade involved exports of Chinese goods into Vietnam, with minimal Vietnamese exports entering China. Chinese goods, primarily everyday necessities, served not only the general Vietnamese population but also the roughly 25,000 Chinese miners working in northern Vietnam.

   (b) Trade Participants: Most of the merchants engaged in cross-border trade were Chinese nationals or overseas Chinese, while many Vietnamese officials responsible for managing border trade were themselves of Chinese descent.

Hence, Chinese immigrants played a pivotal role in the growth and regulation of Sino-Vietnamese border commerce during this period.

In summary, from the late 17th century to the mid-19th century, Chinese merchants, most of whom operated as small-scale retailers, spread across both urban and rural areas of Vietnam, supplying a wide range of daily necessities. This widespread commercial activity underscores the substantial contribution of Chinese immigrants to Vietnam’s economic development during that era.

3.3. In the Field of Mining

From north to south, Vietnam is rich in mineral reserves and has a wide variety of resources. These abundant mineral resources had already been extensively exploited as early as the Later Lê Dynasty. Before the reign of Emperor Lê Hiển Tông (1740–1786), almost all areas in Tonkin (northern Vietnam) with deposits of gold, silver, copper, and lead had already seen the establishment of mining operations.

The growing demand for minerals prompted the Vietnamese government to implement proactive mining policies and to encourage foreign investment in the mining sector. Many Chinese responded positively to these government policies and flocked to Vietnam to invest in mining operations. The Vietnamese government often welcomed Chinese capital to help develop its mining economy.

To enhance management over the mining sector, successive Vietnamese dynasties attempted to limit the scale and number of mining operations. However, in reality, these restrictions were rarely effectively enforced, and most Chinese-run mines exceeded the officially permitted limits. The number of Chinese mine workers increased significantly.

During the Nguyễn Dynasty, advancements in mining technology and increased demand further expanded both the scope and scale of mining activities. At that time, the Nguyễn court also reformed its mining policies by strengthening governmental control over mining operations. One such reform required that all private mining ventures first submit an application to the government and assume tax obligations. This system was called the “tax farming system” (領徵制), and those granted the right to collect and pay taxes were referred to as “tax households” (稅戶). This policy reflected Vietnam's increasing emphasis on mining. Following this reform, Chinese mining entrepreneurs transitioned into tax households under the system.

Chinese contributions to the development of Vietnam’s mining sector not only helped meet the country’s growing demand for mineral resources but also provided substantial mining tax revenues to the feudal government. Meanwhile, the Chinese merchants involved in these ventures reaped significant profits.

The vigorous participation of overseas Chinese in Vietnam’s mining industry also stimulated the country's broader economic development, especially in remote mountainous regions. Northern Vietnam’s Sino-Vietnamese border areas were once economically underdeveloped, but since the launch of Chinese mining operations, hotels, taverns, clinics, and pharmacies have quickly sprung up, boosting local prosperity.

4. Conclusion

From the late 17th century to the mid-19th century, Chinese and overseas Chinese made significant contributions to the socio-economic development of Vietnam. Those who migrated to southern Vietnam worked hand in hand with the local population to develop and build the region, laying the foundation for the prosperity of today’s southern Vietnam.

Over time, in pursuit of better livelihoods, many Chinese migrants gradually integrated into Vietnamese society, eventually becoming an integral part of the Vietnamese nation. Their movement from China to Vietnam marked not just a migration between two neighboring countries, but a shift from one agrarian society to another—an internal flow within the broader framework of traditional agricultural civilization, involving the transfer of population, resources, and technological knowledge.

Carrying with them Confucian values such as benevolence, propriety, frugality, and humility, these migrants lived in harmony with the local communities. Through peaceful coexistence and diligent effort, they contributed significantly to Vietnam’s social, economic, and cultural development. In doing so, they helped shape a vibrant chapter in the history of Sino-Vietnamese relations.

Note: 

(*) Chen Shangchuan (1626–1715) was a renowned Chinese expatriate leader who migrated to Vietnam during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. He is also considered one of the earliest overseas Chinese community leaders in Chinese history. He made outstanding contributions to promoting Sino-Vietnamese cultural exchange and was deeply admired and respected by both the local population and the Chinese immigrant community.

References

1. You, Jianshe. (2006). An Analysis of the Vietnamese Feudal Government's Policies Toward Chinese and Overseas Chinese from the Late 17th Century to the Mid-19th Century. Journal of Southwest China Normal University, (6), November.

2. Yang, Jiangfa. (1991). Recent Developments Among Overseas Chinese in Vietnam. Southeast Asian Studies, (1).

3 . Yan, Xing & Zhang, Zhuomei. (2002). The Chinese in Vietnam: History and Contributions. Journal of Wenshan Teachers’ College, 1(May).

4 . Tran, Trong Kim. (2005). A Brief History of Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh City: General Publishing House.

5. Dang, Nghiem Van. (2003). The Vietnamese National Community. Ho Chi Minh City: Vietnam National University Press.

6. Purcell, Victor. (1965). The Chinese in Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press.

The 7th International Conference on Vietnamese Studies, themed Sustainable Development in the New Rising Era, will be held in October 2025. This large-scale academic forum of international stature will bring together scholars and researchers from Vietnam and around the world to review achievements, share experiences, and exchange academic insights in the field of Vietnamese studies.

The conference aims to identify key and urgent issues in Vietnam's path toward sustainable development in the context of globalization and rapid global changes. Participants will propose practical solutions to unlock national potential, inspire development aspirations, and implement national development strategies based on these discussions. Additionally, the event will promote global networking in Vietnamese studies and enhance the international image of Vietnam and its people.

This conference is a major scientific and technological event of the year, held in celebration of the 80th anniversary of the founding of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

For more information, please visit the official website of Vietnam National University, Hanoi.